3 деңгейлі смж құжаты

Ұсынылған әдебиеттер

1. Аракин В.Д. Очерки по истории английского языка. – М., 1975.

2. Аракин В.Д. История английского языка . М., 1985.

3. Брукнер К. История английского языка. М., 1977 . Т. 1-2.

4. Расторгуева История английского языка М., 1999
Lectures 4 and 5. The Main characteristic features of the OE and the ME grammatical system.

The evolution of the grammatical system of the English language.
1. The evolution of grammatical system of the English language in the Old English and Middle English period.

2. The main characteristic features of ME and Modern English.

3. The main morphological features of the Old, Middle and Modern English periods.

4. The evolution of parts of speech (noun, adjective, pronoun, numerals and verb).

There were 5 declinable parts of speech in OE. The noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the numeral and the participle. The OE noun paradigm was composed by the ,following grammatical nouns: gender, number, case.

The category of gender was formed by opposition of 3 gender- forms: masculine, feminine and neuter. The grammatical gender did not always coincide with the natural gender of the person and sometimes even contradicted it. Fe witman - woman was declined as masculine. The category of number was formed by opposition of two forms. The singular and the plural F.e. fisc - fiscas, to – te.

There were the 4 forms (cases) in OE: nominative, Senitive, Dativ, Akkusative.

In the course of the development of OE, the original paradigm had undergone great changes due to the busion of the original stem suffix and the grammatical ending into one element which from the point of view of OE is to be regarded as a grammatical ending.

As a result of that busion nouns to have had different stem - suffixes in OE acquired materially different endings in the some case, for example.

Nominative plural
a-stem o – stem n - stem

stan – as carta nam – an

The following classes of pronouns were to be observed in OE:

Personal, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative, relative and indefinite. The declension system was not the some for all classes. It has at least two subsystems: the dedension of personal pronouns of other pronouns. Although the grammatical categories of such subsystem were the some i.e. gender, number, case, the number of categorial composing those categories was different.

singular, dual and plural. F.e. Ie (I) with (two of us) we (we). The other pronouns had 3 gender, 2 number forms, but unlike personal pronoun they had 5 case forms: the Nom, The Akk, the Dative, the genitive and the instrumental.

The paradigm of the adjectives is similar of that of the noun and the pronoun i.e. it comprises gender, 2 number forms: the Number, Case.

Cases: N, D, A, G, instrumental. There were two ways of declining Adjectives - the Definite and the Indefinite. There was also the category of degrees of comporision heard – heardra – heardost (hord).

The verb – system in OE was represented by two sets of forms the binite and the non – finite forms of the verb (Infinitive, Participle). They differed more than today they do, as the verbals in OE not conjugated, but also declined like nouns or adjectives. OE verbs was built up by categories of person, number, tense and

The grammatical category of tense was represent by two forms: Present tense and Past tense. There was no future tense in OE, future events were expressed wish the help of a present tense an adverb denoting futurity of by a combination of a model verb, generally shall + Infinitive (Sculan) or will + Infinitive (willan).

There were three mood forms in OE: Indicative, Imperative and Oblique. The Indicative Mood were used in cases similar to those in which they are used now. But the Oblique Mood in OE differed greatly from the corresponding mood in New English. There was only one Mood form in OE that was used both to express events that are thought of as unreal or as problematic (today there only two mood to denote such events, the Subjunctive and Conjunctive).

There were two principal means for forming verb – stems in OE:

1) by means of vowel interchange of the root vowel and 2) by means of suffixation. The accordance with these two methods of the formation of the verb stems all the verbs in OE formed 2 main groups - the strong verbs and the verbs in OE formed 2 main groups - the strong verbs and the weak vebs.

A.I. Smirnitsky suggested the morphological classification of verbs in OE (strong verbs are divided in VII classes, weak –III classes).

The grammar system of the language in the Middle and New English periods underwent radical changes. Many grammatical nation formerly expressed synthetically either disappeared from the grammar system of the language or came to be expressed by analytical means. We observe the process of gradual loss of declension by many parts of speech, formerly declined. This in ME there remained the noun, the pronoun, the adjective as declinable words, in NE the noun , tne pronoun, the adjective as declinable words, in NE the noun and the pronoun are the only parts of speech that are declined. Three types dedlensions: a – slem, n – stem of OE are preserved in ME but the number of nouns belonging to the some declension in OE and ME varies. The original a – system grows in volume, acquiring new words from the original n – stem dedension and borrowed words. There were two categories in the declension of nouns in ME.

Number (singular, plural). Case –(Common case, genitive case )

Nominative, Accusative Dative

The process of simplification of the system of noun declension continued at the beginning of the NE period. In NE we do not find different declensions. Only-es, s in accordance with a –system declension. The category of number is preserved, manifesting the difference between singular and plural forms. The category of case, which underwent reduction first to three then to two forms in NE contains the same number of case –forms as in ME, but the difference is the number of the nouns used in the senitive case - mainly living beings, inanimate nouns used in so common. The categories of adjectives (declension and number) completely disappeared in NE. Contrary to that degrees of comparison were not only preserved but also developed in ME and NE.

There existed such means of forming degrees of comparison as suffixation, vowel interchange and suppletive forms, there remained as a productive means only one: suffixation. At the same time there was formed and developed another means – analytical - use of auxiliary words. The article: definite and indefinite appeared in ME.

IV. In ME a new verbal developed - the gerund. In the process of English history the verbals shiffed from the system of declension into the system of conjugation. In ME the subdivision of strong and weak verbs is preserved. In NE due to different phonetic process and changes on analogy the two principal groups of modern verbs: regular and irregular. Main sources of irregular verbs were irregular verbs of OE and Scandinavian borrowings. In addition to the OE categories their appeared the categories of aspect and time correlation. Analytical forms became used for forming them and for tense, mood.
Өзін-өзі тексеруге арналған сұрақтар
1/ What kind of language was OE language according to the structure?

2/ Yow many parts of speech were there in OE language? And what were there?

3/ What principal means of verb forming stems were there in OE?

4/ What parts of speech underwent declension in ME language?

5/ What new verbal had developed in ME?

Ұсынылған әдебиеттер

1. Аракин В.Д. Очерки по истории английского языка. – М., 1975.

2. Аракин В.Д. История английского языка . М., 1985.

3. Брукнер К. История английского языка. М., 1977 . Т. 1-2.

4. Расторгуева История английского языка М., 1999
Lecture 6. The Subject matter of theoretical phonetics.

The phonetic struture of the English language. The phonological aspect of Speech sounds.

Modification of English phonemes in connected Speech.
1. The Subject matter of theoretical phonetics.

2. The phonetic struture of the English language.

3. The phonological aspect of Speech sounds.

4. Modification of English phonemes in connected Speech.

Phonetics is connected with grammar as it helps to pronounce correctly singular and plural forms of nouns / book - books, bag- bags, pen – pens/ , the Past Indefinite and past Participle forms of the verbs and other endings: asks – asked, lives – lived, invites – invited, Nick’s, teacher’s etc. It is connected with grammar also through sound interchange, as in: wife – wives, man – men ,mouse – mice, write –wrote –written etc.

Phonetics is connected with lexicology through the accentual structure of English words in which verbs are formed from nouns by conversion. E.g. import – to import, subject – to subject ,present – to present.

Phonetics is connected with stylistics through intonation which serves to express different emotions and to distinguish between different attitudes on the part of the speaker or reader.

Thus, phonetics as a science , has developed a number of its own branches: physiological or articulatory phonetics, which treats of the articulation and perception , physical or acoustic phonetics, which studies the physical nature of sounds and phonology, which is concerned with the study of functions of different phonetic phenomena.

Each of these branches of phonetics has its own methods of investigation and its own terminology.

There are other divisions of phonetics as well. Phonetics may be general and special. General phonetics is a part of general linguistics. It studies sound producing possibilities of the speech apparatus and the way they are used for human intercommunication.

Special phonetics studies the contemporary phonetic system of a particular language. We may also speak of comparative phonetics which treats of the correlation between the phonetic system of two or more languages. Historical phonetics is a part of the history of a language. Its aim is to trace changes taking place in the phonetic system of a given language at different periods of its historical development. Phonetics may be also practical and theoretical. Practical phonetics has a wide sphere of application: 1/ It is used in teaching foreign language and mother tongues to children and adults; 2/ Phonetics deals with studying speech defects and ways of curing them; 3/ Phonetics is also used in training teachers, actors and singers etc.

The importance of theoretical phonetics can be observed through its various sphere of investigation. 1/ it gives a detailed description of the phonetic structure of a certain language; 2/ Theoretical phonetics gives through analysis, description and comparison of all the phonetic means in the system of different languages in order to reveal the general laws of development of human living speech / general phonetics/; 3/ It is concerned with comparative study of the phonemic systems of two languages; 4/ it carries out investigations of such particular problems of general phonetics as phonemes ,syllables, stress, melody, syntagma and so on.

Phonology is a branch of phonetics which studies the functional aspect of sounds. The phonology is based on the phoneme theory, which came into being in Russia . As has been said before its founder was the Polish-Russian scientist professor Ivan Alexandrovitch Bauduin de Courteney. He tried to analyze phonemes according to their functions

The number of phonemes in each language is much smaller than its number of allophones. It means that each phoneme has several allophones. Classification of allophones is very important for practical teaching, because in actual speech it is allophones that people pronounce and not phonemes.

Allophones are divided into 2 groups / principal/ allophones, and subsidary allophones. The most representative allophone is called typical. It is not influenced by neighbouring speech sounds. Typical allophones are described in English text-books. They are included into the classification of phonemes of the language. For example, the typical allophone of the t phoneme is characterized by the following feature; 1/ occlusive plossive; 2/ forelingual alveolar; 3/ voiceless-fortis; 4/ oral.

In every use language is not conducted in isolated, separate units; it is performed in connected sequence of larger units, in words, phrases and longer utterances. There are actually some remarkable differences between the pronunciation of a word in isolation and the same word in a block of connected speech. These changes are mostly quite regular and predictable. The problem of defining the phonemic status of sounds in connected speech is too complicated because of the numerous modifications of sounds in speech. These modifications are observed both within words and word boundaries / or junctions/.

As a result of intercourse between consonants and vowels there appear such processes of connected speech as assimilation, vowel reduction and elison / which is sometimes called delition/. The adaptive modification of a cononant by a neighbouring consonant in the speech chain is known as assimilation, e.g. the alveolar t followed by the interdental becomes dental; eights, at three etc.

One of the wide-spread sound changes is certainly vowel reduction. Reduction is actually qualitative or quantitative weakening of vowels in unstressed positions, e.g. board - blackboard.

Assimilation may be of three types as fae as its direction concerned: progressive , regressive and double. In progressive assimilation the assimilated consonant is influenced by the preceding consonant. E.g. What’s this.

In regressive assimilation the preceding consonant is influenced by the following one.

e.g. newspaper. In reciprocal or double assimilation two adjacent / neighbouring/ consonants influence each other. E.g. twenty.

2/ What branches of Theoretical phonetics do you know?

3/ What methods of investigation are used in articulatory phonetics?

3/ How is phonetics connected with grammar?

4/ What is the connection between phonetics and lexicology?

5/ What do you know about allophones?

6/ What groups are allophones divided into?

7/ The number of phonemes is smaller than the number of allophones in any language. Why?

8/ What are principal allophones characterized by?

9/ What functions do the phonemes fulfil in the language?

10/ What do you know about accommodation?

11/ What is assimilation?

Ұсынылған әдебиеттер

1. М.А. Соколова, Тихонова и др. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. М., 1980.

2. В.А. Васильев и др. English Phonetics, a Theoretical Course. М., 1980

3. С.Ф. Леонтьева Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. М., 1978.

4. А.В Борисова. Теоретическая фонетика. Минск, 1980.

5. В.А. Васильев и др. English Intonation. М., 1980.

6. А.М. Антипова. Система английской речевой интонации. М., 1984.

7. Н.И. Жинкин. Мехпнизмы речи. М.,1958.

9. Л.В Златоустова. Фонетическая структура слова в потоке речи. Казань, 1962.
Lecture 7. The syllabic structure of English words.
1. Types of syllables in the English language. Main theories of syllable formation and syllable division: expiratory, sonority.

2. The theory according to prof. L.V. Shcherba. The theory according prof. N.L. Zhinkin.

Phonetic and orthographic syllables.

The syllabic structure of words may be graphically represented by the letter V standing for a vowel sound, and the letter C standing for a consonant sound, . The syllabic sonorant is represented by S.

Every syllable has a definite structure. It belongs to one of the following four main types of syllables: V , VC , CV , CVC. They are classified as covered, uncovered, open and closed.

There are a great number of variants in the syllabic structure which are formed by increasing the number of consonants in the initial and final position, as in: VCC ( and, act, ask, else etc);

VCCC ( e.g. ends, acts, asks, angle etc);

CCV (e.g. blue, clay, cry, fly etc);

CCCV (e.g. spray, straw, screw etc.);

CVCC (e.g. cats, goats, pens, child etc.);

CVCCC (e.g. child’s, facts, minds etc.);

The similar syllablic structures exist in Russian and Kazakh too:

V : и-бо, и-ва , о-бед, à-òà, î-ºû, û-äûñ;

CV : но-ра, жа-ра, áà-ëà, äà-ëà, ái-ëi-ìi;

CCV: гра-нат, гра-фа, ста-кан;

CCCV: стра-тег, стра-тосфера;

VC: он, ад , от /предлог/, àé, үé, îé-ëàíäû;

VCC: есть, иск, икс, акт, àíò, өðò, ұëò;

CVC: лук, маг, лоб, луг, òàñ, áàñ-òûқ, áұë-áұë;

CVCC: мавр, воск, литр, қàíò, æàðқ-æұðқ, қàðò,қàíò;

CVCCC: пункт, текст;

There are several theories which try to explain the mechanism of syllabic formation and syllabic division. The oldest of them iss the so-called expiratory theory/ also pressure or chest pulse theory/. According to this theory each syllable corresponds to one expiration. A word consists of as many syllables as there are such expirations made when the word is uttered. Each syllable begins with a fresh expiration.

Next appeared the so-called sonority theory of syllables. It was proposed by Otto Esperson. This theory is wide spread now among foreign linguists. All speech sounds have different inherent sonority. The most sonotous are open back vowels, the least sonorous are voiceless stops.. O. Esperson classified all speech sounds according to seven levels of sonority; 1/ vowels; 2/ semi-vowels ( j,w) ; 3/ sonorants (l,m,n,ŋ, r) ; 4/ voiced fricatives ( v,ð,z,э ) ; 5/ voiced stops (b, d,g]; 6/ voiceless fricatives ſ,h] ; 7/ voiceless stops ( p,t,k). Each syllable consists of one peak of sonority.

Professor Shcherba L.V. out forward a new theory of syllable formation and syllable division. The theory was further developed by hus followers and at present has become widespread.

According to professor Shcherba L.V. all consonants may be of three types; 1/ initially strong(and finally weak) as in: on, it, us; 2/ finally strong ( and initially weak) as in may, tea, no); 3/ double consonants which are strong at both ends and have a weakening in the middle, as in: good day, misspell etc. The most energetic part of the consonant is attached to a vowel. For inst., in the word “ ten” there are two consonants :[t ] and [n]. The consonant [t] is strong ( and initially weak) , because the vowel is attached to the end of a consonant. The consonant [n] is initially strong ( and finally weak), because the vowel is attached to the beginning of a [n]. At the beginning the [t] is weak, at the end it gets stronger. The muscular tension increases until it reaches its climax produced by the vowel [e]. Then the muscular tension begins to diminish. The [n] is still strong at the beginning but gets quite weak at the end. Professor Shcherba’s theory was developed by his followers and now it is known as “muscular tension theory”.

Professor N.I. Zhinkin”s investigation of the mechanism of syllable formation and syllable division in the pronunciation of the Russian language may serve as a basis for a general theory of syllables. By using different complicated techniques professor N.I. Zhinkin found out whichspeech organs causes a syllable to be formed. This organ is the pharyngeal cavity.

Phonemic and orthographic syllables should not be confused. They sometimes coincides and sometimes do not. For instance , phonetically disyllabic words like “apple” , “ higher”, “eaten” are treated in writing as monosyllabic words, whereas, orthographically disyllabic words like “type”, , “come,, “wrote” etc. have only one phonetic syllable. Here some examples: phonetic syllables orthographic syllables

[a:-tis-tik] art-ist-ic

The theory according to prof. L.V. Shcherba. The theory according prof. N.L. Zhinkin.

Phonetic and orthographic syllables.

Functions of syllabic structure: constitutive, distinctive and recognitive.

The syllabic structure of the English language performs three main functions: 1/ constitutive; 2/ distinctive; 3/ recognitive .

Өзін-өзі тексеруге арналған сұрақтар

1. 
   What is our speech acoustically broken up into?
   
2. 
   What types of syllables do you know?
   
3. 
   What sounds may form syllables in English?
   
4. 
   What syllable formation theories do you know?
   
5. 
   What main syllable division rules in the English language do you know?
   
6. 
   What is an open syllable?
   
7. 
   What syllable is closed?
   
8. 
   What is the difference between the syllabic structure of the English and Russian (Kazakh) languages?
   

Ұсынылған әдебиеттер

1. М.А. Соколова, Тихонова и др. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. М., 1980.

2. В.А. Васильев и др. English Phonetics, a Theoretical Course. М., 1980

3. С.Ф. Леонтьева Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. М., 1978.

4. А.В Борисова. Теоретическая фонетика. Минск, 1980.

5. В.А. Васильев и др. English Intonation. М., 1980.

6. А.М. Антипова. Система английской речевой интонации. М., 1984.

7. Н.И. Жинкин. Мехпнизмы речи. М.,1958.

9. Л.В Златоустова. Фонетическая структура слова в потоке речи. Казань, 1962.
Lecture 8. Accentual structure of English words.
1. Word accent and if types. The position of word accent.

2. The tendencies and factors determining the word accent. Degrees of word accent. The place of word stress.

3. The factors defining the place and the degree of word stress. The functions of word accent.
Дәріс тезистері
Different syllables in one and the same word are usually pronounced wirh a different degree of prominence. such special prominence given to one or more syllables in the same word is called word accent ( or word stress). Different linguists define word accent differently. There exist different ways of making a syllable more prominent. That is why we may speak of different types of word accent. . The pronunciation of a syllable may be made more prominent if the syllable is called with greater force. Professor D. Jones said in this respect: “Stress may be described as the degree of force with which a sound or a syllable is uttered…A strong force of utterance means energetic action of the articulating organs...This generally gives the objective impression of loudness. A syllable may become more prominent if it is pronounced at different pitch levels or in different pitch directions. Word accent of this type is called musical (or pitch accent).

A syllable may become more prominent if its vowel pronounced longer than the same vowel in an unstressed position. For instance, the / i: / vowels of the word / `θi:si:z/ (theses) are of different lengths. It is longer in a stressed position and shorter in an unstressed one. This type of word accent is known as quantitative accent.

A syllable may be become more prominent if the vowel is pronounced distinctly and its quality is not obscured. For instance, the /ia/ in / `siarias/ are a bit different in quality: the stressed /ia/ is distinct and clear, while the unstressed /ia/ is somewhat obscured. According to Prof. Torsuyev this type of word accent is qualitative accent.

Languages ,may be also be classified according to the position of word accent in disyllabic and polysyllabic words. From this point of view languages have either word accent or fixed word accent.

To the fixed type of word accent belong French and Kazakh ( the final syllable is stressed),Lattish and Czech ( the initial syllables is accent).

English and Russian belong to the so-called free word accent. It means that the main accent may fall in different words on a syllables occupying any position. The position of the stress in each particular word remains unchanged, or fixed. In Russian and English there are words in which the main stress falls either on the first, or the second, or the third, etc syllable in a word.

In Russian; слово, сегодня, перевод, преподаватель, электрификация и т.д.

In English: morning, companion, demonstration, simplification etc.

Accent is called shifting if it changes its position from one morpheme to another in different derivatives and grammatical forms of the word. Foe example: in Russian: холод, холодный, холода, учение, ученик, ученику и т.д. In English: accent, to accent, accentuation, subject, subjection, subjective, subjectivity etc.

The accentual system of the English is also free/ But it is to earn the English accent than the Russian one due to a number os reasons. There exist in English certain tendencies which make the occurrence of word accent more predictable than in Russian. Prof. V.A. Vasilyev describes them as follows: the recessive tendency, the rhythmic tendency, the retentive tendency and semantic factor. These four factors help learners to determine the position of word accent in most English words.

( e.g. father, mother husband, wonder etc.) or on the root morpheme in words with prefixes that have lost their meaning (e.g. among, before, forget, become, begin etc.)

English speech is characterized by rhythmic alternations of stressed and unstressed syllables, in which stressed notional words alternate with short unstressed form words. This feature has caused the development of the so-called rhythmic tendency in the English word accentuation system.

The so-called retentive tendency consists in retaining the accent ( either primary or secondary) in derivatives on the same syllable as in the original word. The difference between retentive accent and constant accent lies in the following: content accent remain on the same syllable in all the reivatives and grammatical forms of the word: retentive accent in one group of derivatives falls on the same syllable, while in another it may be shifted. For example: retentive accent: converse, conversable, conversant, but: conversation, conversational, expect, expectancy, expectative, but: expectation etc.

(Compare: constant accent: begin, begins, began, begun, beginner, beginning etc.) The accentuation structure of some English words is determined by the semantic factor. The influence of the semantic factor upon the word accent may be commonly observed in compound words. Most of them have two equally strong accents. Both elements of such compound words are considered to be semantically important. 1/ words with strong prefixes ( which have definite meaning of their own), as in anti-fascist, ex-president, half-price, indoors etc. 2/ compound adjectives, as: well-bred, ill-tempered, ligh-blue etc. 3/ compound verbs with post-verbal adverbs, such as: come in, go out etc. 4/ simple numeral from 13 to 19. Each word of a compound numeral is stressed, e.g. nineteen, thirteen, fifty-seven, two hundred etc

The accentual structure of English of English words may be analyzed from the phonological point of view. The accentual structure fulfils three main functions: constitutive, distinctive, recognitive.

2/ What types of word accent do we distinguish?

3/ What type does the accent of the English language belong to?

4/ What is the retentive tendency?

5/ What do you know about semantic factor?

Ұсынылған әдебиеттер

1. М.А. Соколова, Тихонова и др. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. М., 1980.

2. В.А. Васильев и др. English Phonetics, a Theoretical Course. М., 1980

3. С.Ф. Леонтьева Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. М., 1978.

4. А.В Борисова. Теоретическая фонетика. Минск, 1980.

5. В.А. Васильев и др. English Intonation. М., 1980.

6. А.М. Антипова. Система английской речевой интонации. М., 1984.

7. Н.И. Жинкин. Мехпнизмы речи. М.,1958.

9. Л.В Златоустова. Фонетическая структура слова в потоке речи. Казань, 1962.
Lectures 9 and 10. Intonational structure of English sentences.
1. Intonation as a unity of sprech melody, prominence oft words, tempo, voice-tember and rhythm.

2. Components of intonational structure. Functions of intonational structure of the English language.

4. Phonostuliscics of a text and discourse.

Intonation is very important. It organizes a sentence, determines communicative type ofs of sentences and clauses, divides sentence into intonation groups, gives prominence to words and phrases, expresses contrasts and attitudes. The two main function of the intonation is communicative and expressive.

There are two main approaches to the problem of intonation in Great Britain. The first is represented by a large group of phoneticians: H. Sweet, D. Jones, G. Palmer, L. Armstrong, R. Kingdon, A. Gimpson and others. It is traditional and widely used. According to this approach the smallest unit to which linguistic meaning can be attached is a tone-group( sense-group). Their theory is based on the assumption that intonation consists of basic functional “blocks”. They pay much attention to these “ blocks” but not to the way they are connected. Intonation is treated by them as a layer / пласт/ that is superimposed./ навязывать/ on the lexico-grammatical structure. In fact the aim of communication determines the intonation structure not vice-versa.

The grammatical approach to the study of intonation was worked out by Halliday. The main unit of intonation is a clause. Intonation is a complex of three systemic variables: tonality, tonicity and tone, which are connected with grammatical categories. Tonality marks the beginning and the end of a tone-group. Tonicity marks the focal point of each tone-group. The tone is the third unit in the Halliday’s system. Tones can be primary and secondary. They convey the attitude of the speaker Halliday’s theory is based on the syntactical function of intonation.

Speech meledy or pitch of the voice is closely connected with sentence stress. Successive contours of intonation singled out of the speech flow may be defined differently: sense-groups/semantic approach/, breath-groups / extra-linguistic approach/, tone-groups/ phonological definition/, intonation groups, tone units, pitch and stress patterns. Each tone unit has one peak of prominence in the form of a nuclear pitch movement and a slight pause after the nucleus that end the tone unit and is usually shorter than the term ‘pause’. The tone unit is one of the most important units of intonation theory. It contains one nucleus, which is often referred to as nuclear tone or peak of prominence. The interval between the highest and the lowest pitched syllable is called the range of a sense group.

Sentence stress is a great prominence of words, which are made more prominent in an intonation group. The special prominence of accented words is achieved through the greater force of utterance and changes in the direction of voice pitch, accompanied by changes in the quantity of the vowels under stress.

The difference between stress and accent is based on the fact that in the case of stress the dominant perceptual component is loudness, in the case of accent it is pitch. Degrees of stress in an utterance correlated with the pitch range system. Nuclear stress is the strongest – it carries the most important information. Non-nuclear stresses are subdivided into full and partial. Full stress occurs only in the head of an intonation group, partial stress occurs also in the pre-head. And tail.

Given below is the list of words that are usually stressed: nouns, adjectives, numerals, interjections, demonstrative pronouns, emphatic pronouns, possessive pronouns/ absolute forms/,

Indefinite pronouns, negative pronouns, notional verbs, auxiliary verbs, particles: only, also, too, even, just.

The words that are usually unstressed: personal pronouns, reflexive pronouns reciprocal pronouns, relative pronouns, indefinite pronouns used as objects, auxiliary verbs articles, particles, modal verbs.

Tamber or voice quality is a special colouring of the speaker’s voice. It is used to express various emotions and moods such as joy, anger, sadness, indignation etc.

Tamber should not equated with the voice only, it is a more general concept, applicable to the inherent resonaces of any sound. It is studied along the lines of quality: wisper, breathy, laugh, gigle, sob, cry etc.

All the components of intonation exists and develop together. English intonation as a whole carries important information and like other phonetic phenomena ( phonemes, syllables, accent) intonation also fulfils three main functions: constitutive, distinctive and recognitive.

Word accent and if types. The position of word accent. The tendencies and factors determining the word accent. Degrees of word accent.

The functions of word accent.

2/ Why is the importance of intonation ?

3/ What do we understand by tamber?

4/ What functions does intonation fulfill in sentences?

Ұсынылған әдебиеттер

1. М.А. Соколова, Тихонова и др. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. М., 1980.

2. В.А. Васильев и др. English Phonetics, a Theoretical Course. М., 1980

3. С.Ф. Леонтьева Теоретическая фонетика английского языка. М., 1978.

4. А.В Борисова. Теоретическая фонетика. Минск, 1980.

5. В.А. Васильев и др. English Intonation. М., 1980.

6. А.М. Антипова. Система английской речевой интонации. М., 1984.

7. Н.И. Жинкин. Мехпнизмы речи. М.,1958.

9. Л.В Златоустова. Фонетическая структура слова в потоке речи. Казань, 1962.
Lecture 11. The Subject matter of English lexicology The word as the basic unit of the language.
1. Lexicology as a science. The object of lexicology.

2. The aim and significance of lexicology. Word as a basic unit of language. Multifacet structure of the word.

3. Linguistic functions and main characteristics of the word.
Дәріс тезистері
Lexicology is the part of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of the language and the properties of words as the main units of language. The term ‘ lexicology’ is composed of two Greek morphemes: ‘lexics’ meaning ‘word, phrase’,hence, lexicos , ‘having to do with words’ and ‘logos’ which denotes ‘leaning, a department of knowledge’’. Thus, the literal meaning of the term lexicology is ‘ the science of the word’.

The term word denotes the basic unit of a given language resulting from the association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment. A word therefore is simultaneously a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit. Thus, in the word ‘boy’ the group of sounds / b, o, i / is associated with the meaning ‘a male child up to the

age of 17 or 18’, also with other meaning, but this is the most frequent, and with a definite grammatical employment, i.e. it is a noun and has a plural form – boys, it is a personal noun and has the Genetive form – boy’s, boys’, it may be used in certain syntactical functions.

The geraral study of words and vocabulary is known as General lexocology. Linguistic phenomena and properties common to all languages are generally referred to as language universals. Special lexicology devotes its attention to the description of all the characteristic peculiarities in the vocabulary of a given language. A great deal has been written in recent years to provide a theoretical basis on which the vocabularies of different languages can be compared and described. This relatively new branch of

Lexicology is called contrastive /or comparative/ lexicology. The evolution of any vocabulary as well as of its single elements, forms the object of historical lexicology This branch of lexicology discusses the origin of various words, their change and development, and investigates the linguistic and extralinguistic forces modifying their structure, meaning and usage. Descriptive lexicology deals with the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development. I t studies the functions of words and their specific structures.

Lexicology also studies all kinds of semantic groupings and semantic relations such as synonymy, antonymy, homonymy, semantic fields etc. So, modern English lexicology aims at giving a systematic description of the word-stock of Modern English words, their component parts, i.e. morphemes and various types of word-groups and word equivalents commonly known as phraseological units. In other words Modern English lexicology investigates the problems of word-structure and word formation in modern English, the semantic structure of English words.

The knowledge of English is widely spread geographically – it is in fact used in all countries. It is also spoken in many countries as a second language and used in official and business activities there. This is the case in India, Pakistan and many other former British colonies. English is also one of the working language of the United Nations and the universal language of International aviation. More than a half world’s scientific literature is published in English. For all these reasons it is widely studied all over the world as a foreign language.

The theoretical value of lexicology becomes obvious if we realize that it forms the study of one of the three main aspects of language, i.e. its vocabulary, the other two being its grammar and the sound system. Lexicology came into being to meet the demands of many different branches of applied linguistics, namely of lexicography, standartization of terminology, literary criticism and especially of foreign language teaching.

The word is studied in several branches of linguistics and not in lexicology, but it is also closely connected with general linguistics, the history of the language, phonetics, stylistics, grammar and such new branches of science as sociolinguistics, paralinguistics /the study of non-verbal means of communication, such as gestures, facial expressions, eye-contacts etc. pragmalinguistics /the branch of linguistics connected with the relation of speech and its users and the influence of speech upon listeners/ and some others.

The term unit means one of the elements into which a whole may be divided or analyzed and which possesses the basic properties of this whole. The units of a vocabulary or lexical units are two facet elements possessing form and meaning. The basic unit forming the bulk of the vocabulary is the word. Other units are morphemes , i.e. parts of words into which words may be analyzed , set expressions or groups of words into which words may be combined. Words are the central elements of language system. Words can be separated in an utterance by other such units and can be used in isolation. Unlike words, morphemes cannot be divided into smaller meaningful units. Words are thought of as representing integer concept, feeling or action, or as having a single referent. The meaning of morphemes is more abstract and more general than that of words and at the same time they are less autonomous.

Being the central element of any language system the word is a sort of focus for the problems of phonology, lexicology, syntax, morphology and also for some other branches of knowledge.

“A word is the smallest significant unit of a given language capable of functioning alone and characterized by positional movility within a sentence, morphological uninterruptability and semantic intergrity”. All these criteria are necessary

because they permit us to create a basis for the oppositions between the word and the phrase, the word and the phoneme , the word and the morpheme, their common features is that they are all units of the language, their difference lies in the fact that the phoneme is not significant, and a morpheme cannot be used as a complete utterance.

2/ What are the branches of English lexicology?

3/ What does the term “unit” mean?

4/ What main lexical units do you know?

5/ Give the definition of the term “word?”

Ұсынылған әдебиеттер

1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. Лексикология английского языка. М., Изд-во дом ,

1999.

2. Гинзбург Р.З., Хидекель С.С. A course in Modern English Lexicology. М., 1978

4. Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского языка. М., 1996

5. Зыкова И.В. Практикуи по лексикологии английского языка. М., 2006.

6. David Crystal. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University

Press, 1994
Lecture 12. Semantic relations in the lexico-sematic system of the English language.
1. The Polysemy. Homonymy. Classification of homonyms.

2. Synonymy. Ckassification of synonyms

3. Antonymy. Ckassification of antonyms
Дәріс тезистері
When two or more unrelated meanings are associated with the same form – the words are homonyms.

The most widely accepted classification is that recognizing homonyms proper, homonyms and homographs. Homonyms proper are words identical in pronunciation and spelling. E.g. back /n./ ‘ part of the body’; back /adj./ ‘ away from

the front’; back /v./ ‘ to go back’; ball /n./ ‘round object used in games’; ball/n./ ‘ a gathering of people for dancing’; bark /n./ ‘the noise made by a dog’; bark /v./ ‘to utter sharp explosive cries’ bark /n/ ‘ the skin of a tree’, bark /n./ ‘a sailing ship’.

Homophones are word are of the same sound but of different spelling and meaning: buy – by; knight – night; storey – story; or – oar; piece – peace; steal – steel : write – right etc.

Homographs are words different in sound and meaning but accidently identical in spelling. E.g. bow - bow , lead – lead; row - row , wind – wind ; tear - tear.

Different causes by which homonymy may be brought into a language are subdivided into the following groups: 1/ homonymy through convergent sound development, when two or three words of different origin accidentally coincide in sound; 2/ homonymy developed from polysemy through sense development. Both may be combined with loss of endings and other morphological processes. The first type may consist in a/ phonetic change only; b/ phonetic change combined with loss of affixes; c/ independent formation from homonymous bases by means of homonymous affixes. E.g.

OE manam - a/ mean OE cest - chest a/ ‘large box’

b/ mean /think/ b/ chest’ part of a human body.

OE lufu /n./, lufian /v./ - love /n./, /v./ ME waiten /v./ - wait /n./ ,wait /v./

Synonyms can be defined as two or more words of the same language, belonging to the same part of speech and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical denotational meaning, interchangeable, at least, in some contexts without any considerable change in denotational meaning, but differing in morphemic composition, style , valency, shade of meaning, connotation and idiomatic use.

For example, the verbs to experience, to undergo, to sustain and to suffer render the notion of experiencing something. The verb to experience and the noun experience indicate actual living through something and coming to know it first-hand rather from hearsay. Undergo applies chiefly to what someone or something bears or is subjected to /as to undergo an operation, to undergo changes/. Compare the following examples: The French language has undergone considerable and more recent changes since the date when the Normans brought it into England. In this example the verb undergo can be replaced by its synonyms suffer or experience without any change of the sentence meaning. Another examples: hope, expectation, anticipation. These nouns are considered to be synonyms , because they are all mean ‘having something in mind which is likely to happen’. They are, however, much or less interchangeable than the previous group, because of more strongly pronounced difference in shades of meaning. Expectation may be either of good or evil. Anticipation, as a rule, is a pleasurable expectation of something good. Hope is not only belief, but desire that some event would happen.

If the difference in the meaning of synonyms concerns the notion o r the emotion expressed, the synonyms are called as idiographic synonyms. E.g. in analyzing the group consisting of the nouns look, glance, glimpse, peep, sight and view the authors suggest the following distinctive features: 1/ quickness of action; 2/ its character; 3/ the role of the doer of the action. The words look, glance, glimpse and peep denote a conscious of to see, the glance being the most general. The difference is based on time and quickness of the action A glance is ‘ a look which is quick and sudden’, a glimpse is more quicker, implying only momentary sight. A peep is ‘ a brief furtive glimpse at something that is hidden’. Contextual synonyms are similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions. E.g. the verbs ‘ to buy and to get would not taken generally as synonyms, but they are in the following examples: I’ll go to the shop and buy some bread and I’ll go to the shop and get some bread. Total synonyms, i.e. synonyms where the members of a synonymic group can replace each other in any given context, without the slightest alteration in denotative or emotional meaning and connotations. Examples of this type can be found in specific literature among technical terms peculiar to this or that branch of knowledge. Thus in linguistics the term noun and substance, functional affix, flection, inflection are identical in meaning.

Another classification is based on a morphological approach: root or absolute antonyms / right – wrong/, presence of negative affixes creates derivational antonyms /happy – unhappy/.

Unlike synonyms, antonyms do not differ either in style, emotional colouring or distribution. They are interchangeable at least in some contexts. The result of this interchange may be of different kind depending on the conditions of the context. The difference between absolute and derivational antonyms is not only morphological but also semantic as well.

Many antonyms are expressed by means of the negative particle: clean – not dirty, shallow – not deep etc.

Syntactic negation by means of this particle is weaker than the lexical antonyms. Compare : not happy - unhappy, not polite - impolite, not regular – irregular etc.
Өзін-өзі тексеруге арналған сұрақтар

1/ What do we call synonymic words?

2/ What classification of synonyms do you know?

3/ What do we call antonyms?

4/ What are p0olysemantic words?

5/ How are homonyms are classified?

6/ What is the difference between polysemy and homonyms?

Ұсынылған әдебиеттер

1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. Лексикология английского языка. М., Изд-во дом ,

1999.

2. Гинзбург Р.З., Хидекель С.С. A course in Modern English Lexicology. М., 1978

4. Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского языка. М., 1996

5. Зыкова И.В. Практикуи по лексикологии английского языка. М., 2006.

6. David Crystal. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University

Press, 1994
Lecture 13. The Main ways and types of development of the vocabulary.

1. 
   The Semantic change of English words.
   
2. 
   Types of semantic change: the widening and narrowing of word meaning, functional change. Metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, euphemism.
   

The causes of semantic changes may be grouped under two headings, linguistic and extra-linguistic ones. Linguistic causes influencing the process of vocabulary adaptation may be paradigmatic and syntagmatic character. Here we have to do with the constant interaction and interdependence of differentiation between synonyms, changes taking place in connection with ellipsis and with fixed contexts and etc.

Differentiation of synonyms is a gradual change observed in the course of language history, e.g. the word time and tide . They are considered to synonyms. Then tide took on its more limited application to the shifting waters, and time alone is used in the general sense.

The word beast was borrowed from French into ME. Before it appeared the general word for animal was deer which after the word beast was introduced became narrowed to its present meaning. No systemic treatment has been offered for the syntagmatic semantic changes depending on the context.

But such cases exist showing that investigation of the problem is important. One of them is ellipsis. The qualifying words of a frequent phrase may be omitted: media comes to be used for mass media; propose for propose marriage; to be expecting for to be expecting a baby; or minerals for mineral waters; summit – for summit meeting.

The extra-linguistic causes are determined by the social nature of the language. They are observed in changes of meaning resulting from the development of new notions and things. In other words , extra-linguistic causes of semantic are connected with the development of the human mind.

Language are powerfully affected by social, political, economic, cultural and technical change. The influence of those factors upon linguistic phenomena is studied by socio-linguistics. It shows that social factors can influence even structural features of linguistic units: terms of science, for instance, have a number f specific features as compared to words used in other spheres of human activity.

The word being a linguistic realization of notion, changes with the progress of human consciousness. This process is reflected in the development of lexical meaning. In the earlier time the word ‘earth’ meant ‘ the ground under people’s feet’, ‘the soil’, but with the progress of science earth came to mean another meaning, i.e. as a planet. With the development of electrical engineering ‘earth’/n/ means ‘ a connection of a wire with the earth’.

The word ‘space’ meant ‘extent of time or distance’. Alongside this meaning a new meaning developed ‘the limitless and indefinitely great expanse in which all material object are located’.

All the types of semantic change depend on some comparison of the earlier and new meaning of the given word.

Most of the linguists more or less follow the diachronic classification of M. Breal and H. Paul in describing various types of semantic changes. This treatment is therefore traditional.

M. Breal was probably the first to emphasize the fact that in passing from general usage into some sphere of communication a word as a rule undergoes some sort of specialization of its meaning. The word case, for instance, alongside its general meaning of ‘ circumstances in which a person or thing is’ possesses special meaning: case in law /a law suit/, case in medicine /a patient, an illness/, case in grammar / the possessive case, common case/.

When the meaning is specialized , the word can name fewer objects, i.e. have fewer referents. The reduction of scope accounts for the term ‘narrowing’ we must understand that actually neither the meaning nor the notion, but the scope of the notion that is narrowed. e.g. OE deor “ wild beast” = Mod. E deer “ wild ruminant of a particular species”; OE mete “food” = Mod .E meat “ edible flesh” . i.e. only a particular specious of food. As a special group belonging to the same type one can mention the formation of proper nouns from common nouns chiefly in toponymics, i.e. place names. E.g. the City – the business part of London; the Highlands – mountainous part of Scotland.

The process reverse to specialization is termed generalization and widening of meaning. In that case the scope of the new notion is wider than that of the original one. In most cases generalization is combined with higher order of abstraction than in the notion expressed by the earlier meaning. The transition from a concrete meaning to an abstract one is the most frequent feature in the semantic history of words. Thus, ready = OE rade /a derivative of the verb ridan ‘to ride’ meant ‘ prepared for a ride. Fly originally meant ‘to move through the air with wings’; now it denotes any kind of movement in the air or outer space and also very quick movement in any medium.

The most frequent transfers of the name of one object to another frequently based on the association of similarity. These types of transfer are as well known in rhetoric as figures of speech called metaphor and metonymy. A metaphor is a transfer of name based on the association of similarity, and thus it a hidden comparison. It presents a method of description which likens on thing to another by referring to it as if it were some other one. A cunning person , for instance, is referred to a fox. A woman may be called a peach, a lemon, a cat, a goose , a lioness etc.

There are two types of metaphors: a poetic metaphor and a linguistic metaphor.

Within the diachronic approach the phenomenon of euphemism /Greek eu – ‘good’ and pheme – voice/ has been studied by many linguists, many of them classified it as taboo, i.e. a prohibition meant as a safeguard against supernatural forces. With people of developed culture and civilization euphemism is quite different, it is dictated by social usage, etiquette, tact, diplomatic consideration and political propaganda.

From the semasiological point of view euphemism is important, because meanings with unpleasant connotations appear in words formerly neutral and as a result of their repeated use instead of words that are for some reason unmentionable. E.g. deceased – dead’, deranged – mad’
Өзін-өзі тексеруге арналған сұрақтар

1/ What are the causes of semantic change?

2/ What changes are the language powerfully affected?

3/ What types of semantic change do you know?

4/ What is specialization?

5/ What types of metaphors do you know?

6/ What is metonymy? Give examples.

Ұсынылған әдебиеттер

1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. Лексикология английского языка. М., Изд-во дом ,

1999.

2. Гинзбург Р.З., Хидекель С.С. A course in Modern English Lexicology. М., 1978

4. Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского языка. М., 1996

5. Зыкова И.В. Практикуи по лексикологии английского языка. М., 2006.

6. David Crystal. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University

Press, 1994.
Lecture 14. Native words and borrowed words in the English lang.

Дәріс тезистері
A native word is a word which belongs to the original English word stock, as known as from the available manuscripts of the old English period. A loan word is, borrowed or borrowings is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm in meaning according to the standards of the English language.

The native words are further subdivided by diachronic linguistics into those of the Indo-European stock and those of Common Germanic origin. The words having cognates in the vocabularies of different Indo-European languages from the oldest layer. It has been noticed that they readily fall into definite semantic groups. Among them we find terms of kinship : father, mother, son, daughter, brother; words naming the most important objects and phenomena of nature: sun, moon, star, wind, water, wood, hill, stone, tree; names of animals and birds: bull, cat, crow, goose, olf; parts of human body: arm, ear, eye, foot, heart; some of the most frequent verbs are also of Indo-European common stock: bear, come, sit, stand and others. The adjectives of this group denote concrete physical properties: hard, quick, slow, red, white. Most numerals also belong here.

A much bigger part of this native vocabulary layer is formed by words of the Common German stock, i.e. of words having parallels in German, Norwegian, Dutch etc., but none in Russian or French. It contains a greater number of semantic groups. The following list may serve as an illustration of their general character. The nouns are: summer, winter, storm, rain, ice, ground, bridge, house, shop, room, coal iron etc. The verbs are bake, burn, buy, drive hear, keep, learn, make,meet etc.

Borrowings enter the language in two ways: through oral speech /by immediate contact between the people/ and through written speech/ by indirect contact i.e. through books/. Oral borrowings took place chiefly in the early period of history, whereas in recent times written borrowings gained importance. Words borrowed orally / e.g. inch, mill, street/ are usually short and they undergo considerable changes in the act of adoption. Written borrowings/ e.g. French. Communiqué belles-lettres etc./ preserve their spelling and some peculiarities of their sound-form.

Though borrowed words undergo changes in the adopting language they preserve some of their former peculiarities for a comparatively long period. This makes it possible to work out some criteria for determining whether the word belongs to the borrowed element.

Standard English - is the official language of Great Britain at schools and Universities, used by the press, the radio and the television and spoken by the educated people may be defined as that form of English which is current and literary, substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken or understand. Its vocabulary is contrasted to dialect words belonging to various dialects. Local dialects are variants of the English language peculiar to some districts and having no normalized literary form. Regional variants possessing a literary form are called variants. In Great Britain there are two variants, Scottish English and Irish English< and five main groups of dialects: Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western and Southern. Every group contain several (up to ten) dialects. One of the best known Southern dialects is Cockney, the regional dialect of London. As spoken by the uneducated, Cockney differs from Standard English not only in pronunciation but also in vocabulary, morphology and syntax. G.B. Shaw;splay ”Pigmalion” clearly renders this level of Cockey as spoken at that time when the play was written. Some specifically Cockney words and set expressions are: balmy/ barmy, noun or adjective meaning ‘ mentally unbalanced’, barrikin meaning ‘chatter’, garn instead of ‘go on!’, tanner for ‘sixpence’, toff ‘a person of upper class’, up the pole ‘drunk’ , you’ll get yourself disliked ‘ a remonstrance to a person behaving very badly’.

The variety of English spoken in the USA has received the name of American English. American English can not be called a dialect although it is a regional variety, because it has a literary normalized form called Standard American, whereas by definition given above a dialect has no literary form. Neither it is a separate language, as some American authors, like H.Mencken, claimed, because it has neither grammar nor vocabulary of its own.

An American variants of English may be defined as a word or set expressions peculiar to the English language as spoken in the USA. E. g. cookie ‘a biscuit’, guess ‘ think’, store ‘ shop’ , frame house ‘ a house consisting of a skeleton and timber’ etc.

The American variant of the English language differ from British English in pronunciation, in some minor features of grammar, but chiefly in vocabulary.

Here are the most marked differences between British English and American English in spelling, pronunciation and stress:

aeroplane airplane

axe ax

cheque check

defence defense

practice (n) practise (n)

programme program

cosy cozy