3 деңгейлі смж құжаты

Ұсынылған әдебиеттер

1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. Лексикология английского языка. М., Изд-во дом ,

1999.

2. Гинзбург Р.З., Хидекель С.С. A course in Modern English Lexicology. М., 1978

4. Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского языка. М., 1996

5. Зыкова И.В. Практикуи по лексикологии английского языка. М., 2006.

6. David Crystal. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University

Press 1994.


Lecture 15. Morphological structure of English words. The system of English word

formation.

1. Morphemes. Free and bound morphemes. Morphological analysis of words. Types of affixes.

2. Main types of word formation: Word composition. Conversion.

3. Miner types of word formation./ Shortening(Clipping). Backformation. Blending. Reduplication

The term morpheme is derived from Greek ‘morphe’ meaning ‘form’. A form is said to be free if it may stand alone without changing its meaning; if not, it is a bound form, so called because it is always bound to something else. For example, if we compare the words ‘ sportive’ and ‘elegant ‘ and their parts, we see that sport, sportive, elegant may occur alone as utterances, whereas eleg- , -ive , - ant are bound forms, because they never occur alone. A word is said is , by Bloomfield’s definition ‘ a minimum free form’. A morpheme is said to be either free or bound . According to the role they play in constructing words morphemes are subdivided into; root and affixes . The latter are further subdivided according to their position, into prefixes, suffixes and infixes , according to their function and meaning , into derivational and functional.

When a derivational or functional affix is stripped from the word, what remains is called a stem. / or a stem base/. The stem expresses the lexical and part of speech meaning. For the word heartily and for the paradigm heart /sing./ - hearts /pl./ the stem may be represented as ‘heart’. This stem is a single morpheme, it contains nothing but the root, so it is a simple stem. It is also a free stem because it is homonymous to the word heart. A stem may be also defined as the part of the word that remains unchanged throughout its paradigm. For example, the stem of the paradigm hearty – heartier – the heartiest is hearty. It is a free stem, but as it consists of a root morpheme and an affix, it is not simple, but derived. Thus, a stem containing one or more affixes is a derived stem.

Bound stems are especially characteristic of loan /borrowed/ words. The point may be illustrated by the following French borrowings: charity, courage, coward, distort, involve . After the affixes of these are taken away the remaining elements are char-, cour-, cow-, - tort, -volve, which do not coincide with any semantically related independent words.

Unlike roots, affixes are always bound forms. A suffix is a derivational morpheme following the stem and forming a new derivative in a different part of speech or a different word class. Compare suffixes - -en, -y ,- less in the words hearten, hearty, heartless. A prefix is a derivational morpheme standing before the root and modifying the meaning . Compare e.g. hearten – dishearten. It is not only with verbs that a prefix may serve to distinguish one part of speech from another. E.g. earth /n./ - unearth /v./ /отыскивать., sleep /n/ - asleep /v /. An infix is a affix placed within the word, like – n- in the word stand. But this type is not productive form.

Within the parts of speech suffixes have been classified according to lexico-grammatical groups and semantic fields, and according to the type of stems they are added to.

Derivational morphemes affixed before the stem are called prefixes. Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the stem , but they seldom affect its basic lexico-grammatical component. Therefore both the simple word and its prefixed derivative mostly belong to the same part of speech. The prefix mis- when added to verbs, conveys the meaning ‘wrongly’, ‘badly’, it does not suggest any other part of speech but the verb : behave- misbehave , inform – misinform , lead – mislead, pronounce –mispronounce.

The prefix pre- and post- refer to time and order. E.g. historic – prehistoric, pay – prepay, graduate – postgraduate .the prefixes in- , a- , ab -, super -, sub -, trans – modify the stem for place. E.g. income, subway , transatlantic. Several prefixes serve to modify the meaning of the stem for degree and size. E.g. over- and under- /overfeed , undergo/. The group of negative prefixes is so numerous. They are: de- , dis-, in - , im-, il-, ir-, non-, un-. The most frequent is the prefix is the prefix un-. e.g. happy – unhappy; kind – unhappy , even – uneven etc. : bind – unbind , do – undo , pack – unpack. A very frequent prefix with a great combing power is re- denoting repetition of the action expressed by the stem. It may be added to almost any verb or verbal noun. e.g. rearrange, recast, rewrite etc. The prefixes pre- , post- , non-, anti- and some other Romanaic and Greek prefixes are very productive in present-day English. E.g. anti-war, pre-war, post-war, non-party etc.

From the point of view of etimology affixes are subdivided into two main classes: the native affixes and the borrowed affixes. By native affixes we mean those that exist in English from the OE period or were formed from Old English words, for example, - dom, - hood, -ful, - less, - like, - ship,- en, - ing, - ish, -let, -ly, - ness, -some, -teen, -th, -wise, -y etc..

The suffixes of foreign are classified according to their source into Latin / -able/ ible, - -ant/ent,/, French / -age, - ance/ence, - anct/ency, -ard, -ate,- fy/ and Greek / -ist, ism, ite/ etc., - ful, - like, - ship, -en, - ing, - ish, -let, -ly, -ness, - som, - teen, - th, -wise, - y etc.

Word composition is one of the most productive way of word formation in the English language. It consists in forming a new word by joining two stems together and getting a separate lexical unit. e.g. a tame-table, a blackboard, a bluebell etc.Compound words are words consisting of at least two stems which in the language as free free forms. In a compound word the immediate constituents obtain integrity and structural cohesion that make their function in a sentence as a separate lexical units. Eg. a maid-servant, a sunbeam .

There are two important peculiarities distinguishing compounds in English from compounds in other languages. Firstly, both immediate constituents of an English compound are as free forms, i.e. they can be used as independent words with a distinct meaning of their own. The condition of differentiation will be different but the sound pattern is the same, except for the stress. The point may be illustrated by a brief list of the most frequently used compounds studied in every elementary course of English: afternoon, anyway, anybody, birthday, day-off, downstairs, fountain -pen, looking-glass etc. It is common knowledge that the combining elements in Russian are as a rule bound forms / руководство/, in English combinations like Anglo-Saxon, politico-economical where the first elements are bound forms, occur very rarely and seem to be avoided.

The second feature that should attract attention is that the regular pattern for the English language is a two-stem compound. But an exception to this rule is observed when combining element is represented by a form of word stem, as in mother-in-law,, bread-and-butter, deaf-and-dumb etc.

The classification according to the type of composition permits us to establish the following groups: 1/ The prominent type is used without connecting elements: headache, heart-beat, heart break/n/, heart-broken /adj/. 2/ Composition with a vowel or a consonant as a linking element. The examples are very few: Afro-Asian, handicraft, statesman; 3/ Compounds with linking elements represented by preposition or conjunction stress: matter-of-fact, son-in-law, pepper-and-salt, up-and-down etc. The classification of compounds according to the structure of immediate constituents distinguishes: 1/ Compounds consisting of simple stems : film-star; 2/ Compounds where at least one of the constituents is a derived stem: chain- smoker; 3/ Compounds where at least one of the constituents is a clipped stem: maths-mistress, H- bag, X-mas / Christmas/ etc.; 4/ Compounds where at least one of the constituents is a compound stem: wastepaper-basket.

As a type of word-building shortening of words is also called clipping. This way os word building has achieved a high productivity noawadays, especially in American English. Shortenings are produced in two different ways. The first is to make a new word from a syllable of the original ord. The latter amy lose its beginning (e.g. “phone” from telephone, “fence” from defence), its ending (“ hols’ from holidays, “vac” from vacatins), or both the beginning or ending (“flu” ftrom influenza, “frigde” from refrigerator) etc. The second way of shortening is to make a new word from the initial letters of a word group: UNO (United Nations Organization), MP (Member of Parliament), BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) etc.

Blending is a word which is made out of the shortened forms of two other words such as brunch (breakfast + lunch), smog(smoke + fog), Eurovision (European+ television). Back formation is a term of diachronic linguistics. It denotes the derivation of new words by subtracting a real or supposed affix from existing words through misinterpretation of their structure. The most productive type of back-formation in present day English is derivation from compounds that have suffixes – er or –ing as their last element. e.g. to thought-read – thought-reader – though-reading. Or some other examples: baby-sit, house-clean, housekeep, tape-recorded etc.

In reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, either without any change any phonetic changes as in bye-bye (for good bye), or witha variation of the root vowel or consonant as in ping-pong (table- tennis), chit-chat (gossip), silly-shally (hesitation,indecision) etc. Most words made by reduplication represent informal groups: colloquialisms and slang. e.g. walkie-talkie (“ a portable radio” , riff-raff (the worthless element of society) etc.

2/ How are morphemes subdivided according to the role they play in constructing words?

3/ What is the difference between the derivational and functional affixes?

4/ What are the main noun forming suffixes?

5/ Name productive negative prefixes.

6/ What are the main types of word formation in the English language?

7/ What are the important peculiarities of distinguishing English compounds from compounds in other languages?

8/ ame the main structural types of compound nouns in English?

9/ hat are the non-productive types of word formation in English?

Ұсынылған әдебиеттер

1. Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В. Лексикология английского языка. М., Изд-во дом ,

1999.

2. Гинзбург Р.З., Хидекель С.С. A course in Modern English Lexicology. М., 1978

4. Кунин А.В. Фразеология английского языка. М., 1996

5. Зыкова И.В. Практикуи по лексикологии английского языка. М., 2006.

6. David Crystal. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University

Press, 1994
Lecture 16. Territorial differenciation of the vocabulary.
1.Territorial variants of the English language. Standard English.

2.Local dialects. American English. Its peculiarities. Other variants of the English language.

3. Neutral words, special terminology. Professional vocabulary. Colloquial words. Slang.
Дәріс тезистері
Standard English - is the official language of Great Britain at schools and Universities, used by the press, the radio and the television and spoken by the educated people may be defined as that form of English which is current and literary, substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken or understand. Its vocabulary is contrasted to dialect words belonging to various dialects. Local dialects are variants of the English language peculiar to some districts and having no normalized literary form. Regional variants possessing a literary form are called variants. In Great Britain there are two variants, Scottish English and Irish English< and five main groups of dialects: Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western and Southern. Every group contain several (up to ten) dialects. One of the best known Southern dialects is Cockney, the regional dialect of London. As spoken by the uneducated, Cockney differs from Standard English not only in pronunciation but also in vocabulary, morphology and syntax. G.B. Shaw;splay ”Pigmalion” clearly renders this level of Cockey as spoken at that time when the play was written. Some specifically Cockney words and set expressions are: balmy/ barmy, noun or adjective meaning ‘ mentally unbalanced’, barrikin meaning ‘chatter’, garn instead of ‘go on!’, tanner for ‘sixpence’, toff ‘a person of upper class’, up the pole ‘drunk’ , you’ll get yourself disliked ‘ a remonstrance to a person behaving very badly’.

The variety of English spoken in the USA has received the name of American English. American English can not be called a dialect although it is a regional variety, because it has a literary normalized form called Standard American, whereas by definition given above a dialect has no literary form. Neither it is a separate language, as some American authors, like H.Mencken, claimed, because it has neither grammar nor vocabulary of its own.

An American variants of English may be defined as a word or set expressions peculiar to the English language as spoken in the USA. E. g. cookie ‘a biscuit’, guess ‘ think’, store ‘ shop’ , frame house ‘ a house consisting of a skeleton and timber’ etc.

The American variant of the English language differ from British English in pronunciation, in some minor features of grammar, but chiefly in vocabulary.

Here are the most marked differences between British English and American English in spelling, pronunciation and stress:

Difference in spelling
British English American English

aeroplane airplane

axe ax

cheque check

defence defense

practice (n) practise (n)

programme program

cosy cozy