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Brønsted-Lowry definition
Solvent-system definition
Earth Chemistry 440 The Earth and its Lithospher
Chemical composition of the Earth

Common acid-base theories

Lavoisier definition

Since Lavoisier's knowledge of strong acids was mainly restricted to oxyacids, which tend to contain central atoms in high oxidation states surrounded by oxygen, such as HNO₃ and H₂SO₄, and since he was not aware of the true composition of the hydrohalic acids, HCl, HBr, and HI, he defined acids in terms of their containing oxygen, which in fact he named from Greek words meaning "acid-former" (from the Greek οξυς (oxys) meaning "acid" or "sharp" and γεινομαι (geinomai) or "engender"). The Lavoisier definition was held as absolute truth for over 30 years, until the 1810 article and subsequent lectures by Sir Humphry Davy in which he proved the lack of oxygen in H₂S, H₂Te, and the hydrohalic acids.

Liebig definition
This definition was proposed by Justus von Liebig circa 1838,^[12] based on his extensive works on the chemical composition of organic acids. This finished the doctrinal shift from oxygen-based acids to hydrogen-based acids, started by Davy. According to Liebig, an acid is a hydrogen-containing substance in which the hydrogen could be replaced by a metal.^[14] Liebig's definition, while completely empirical, remained in use for almost 50 years until the adoption of the Arrhenius definition.^[12]
Arrhenius definition
The Arrhenius definition of acid-base reactions is a more simplified acid-base concept devised by Svante Arrhenius, which was used to provide a modern definition of bases that followed from his work with Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald in establishing the presence of ions in aqueous solution in 1884, and led to Arrhenius receiving the Nobel prize in chemistry in 1903 for "recognition of the extraordinary services ...
rendered to the advancement of chemistry by his electrolytic theory of dissociation"^[16]
As defined at the time of discovery, acid-base reactions are characterized by Arrhenius acids, which dissociate in aqueous solution form hydrogen or the later-termed oxonium (H₃O⁺) ions,^[14] and Arrhenius bases which form hydroxide (OH^-) ions. More recent IUPAC recommendations now suggest the newer term
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"hydronium"^[17] be used in favor of the older accepted term "oxonium"^[18] to illustrate reaction mechanisms such as those defined in the Brønsted-Lowry and solvent system definitions more clearly, with the Arrhenius definition serving as a simple general outline of acid-base character^[16] More succinctly, the Arrhenius definition can be surmised as;

Arrhenius acids form hydrogen ions in aqueous solution with Arrhenius bases forming hydroxide ions.
The universal aqueous acid-base definition of the Arrhenius concept is described as the formation of water from hydrogen and hydroxide ions, or hydronium
ions and hydroxide ions produced from the dissociation of an acid and base in aqueous solution (2 H₂O → OH^- + H₃O⁺ )^[19], which leads to the definition that in
Arrhenius acid-base reactions, a salt and water is formed from the reaction between an acid and a base --^[16] in more simple scientific definitions, this form of reaction is
called a Neutralization reaction.

acid⁺ + base^- → salt + water

The positive ion from a base can form a salt with the negative ion from an acid. For example, two moles of the basesodium hydroxide (NaOH) can combine with one mole of sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) to form two moles of water and one mole of sodium sulfate.

2NaOH + H₂SO₄ → 2 H₂O + Na₂SO₄

Brønsted-Lowry definition

Main article: Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory
The Brønsted -Lowry definition, formulated independently by its two proponents Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted andMartin Lowry in 1923 is based upon the idea of protonation of bases through the de-protonation of acids -- more commonly referred to as the ability of acids to "donate" hydrogen ions (H⁺) or protons to bases, which "accept" them.^[20] In contrast to the Arrhenius definition, the Brønsted-Lowry definition refers to the products of an acid-base reaction as conjugate acids and bases to refer to the relation of one proton, and to indicate that there has been a reaction
between the two quantities, rather than a "formation" of salt and water, as explained in the Arrhenius definition.^{. [14]}
It defines that in reactions, there is the donation and reception of a proton, which essentially refers to the removal of a hydrogen ion bonded within a compound and its reaction with another compound, and not the removal of a proton from the nucleus of an atom, which would require inordinate amounts of energy not attainable through the simple dissociation of acids. In differentiation from the Arrhenius definition, the Brønsted-Lowry definition postulates that for each acid, there is a conjugate acid and base or "conjugate acid-base pair" that is formed through a complete reaction, which also includes water, which is amphoteric^[21]:

AH + B → BH⁺ + A^-

General formula for representing Brønsted-Lowry reactions.
HCl (aq) + H₂O → H₃O⁺ (aq) + Cl^- (aq)

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Hydrochloric acid completely reacts with water to form the hydronium and chloride ions

CH3COOH + NH3 → NH4⁺ + CH3COO^-

Acetic acid reacts incompletely with ammonia, no hydronium ions being produced
Lewis definition
Main article: Lewis acid-base theory
The Lewis definition of acid base reactions, devised by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1923 is an encompassing theory to the Brønsted-Lowry and solvent-system definitions with regards to the premise of a donation mechanism, which conversely attributes the donation of electron pairs from bases and the acceptance by acids, rather than protons or other bonded substance and spans both aqueous and non-aqueous reactions.

Ag⁺ + 2 :NH3 → [H3N:Ag:NH3]⁺

A silver cation reacts as an acid with ammonia which acts as an electron-pair donor, forming an ammonia-silver adduct
In reactions between Lewis acids and bases, there is the formation of an adduct when the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of a molecule, such as NH₃ with available lone electron pair(s) donates lone pairs of electrons to the electron-deficient molecule's lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) through a co-ordinate covalent bond; in such a reaction, the HOMO-interacting molecule acts as a base, and the LUMO-interacting molecule acts as an acid. In highly-polar molecules, such as Boron Tri-fluoride (BF₃), the most electronegativeelement pulls electrons towards its own orbitals, providing a more positive charge on the less-electronegative element and a difference in its electronic structure due to the axial or equatorial orbiting positions of its electrons, causing repulsive effects from Lone pair-bonding pair (Lp-Bp) interactions between bonded atoms in excess of those already provided by Bonding pair-bonding pair (Bp-Bp) interactions. Adducts involving metal ions are referred to as co-ordination compounds.
Solvent-system definition
This definition is based on a generalization of the earlier Arrhenius definition to all autodissociating solvents. In all such solvents there is a certain concentration of a positive species, solvonium cations and negative species, solvate anions, in equilibrium with the neutral solvent molecules. For example:

2H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ (hydronium) + OH^- (hydroxide)

2NH₃ ⇌ NH₄⁺ (ammonium) + NH₂⁻ (amide)

or even some aprotic systems

N₂O₄ ⇌ NO⁺ (nitrosonium) + NO₃⁻ (nitrate)

2SbCl₃ ⇌ SbCl₂⁺ (dichloroantimonium) + SbCl₄^- (tetrachloroantimonate)

A solute causing an increase in the concentration of the solvonium ions and a decrease in the solvate ions is an acidand one causing the reverse is a base. Thus, in

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N₂O₄:

liquid ammonia, KNH₂ (supplying NH₂^-) is a strong base, and NH₄NO₃ (supplying NH₄⁺) is a strong acid. In liquid sulfur dioxide (SO₂), thionyl compounds (supplying SO²⁺) behave as acids, and sulfites (supplying SO₃²⁻) behave as bases.

Here are some nonaqueous acid-base reactions in liquid ammonia 2NaNH₂ (base) + Zn(NH₂)₂ (amphiphilic amide) → Na₂[Zn(NH₂)₄] 2NH₄I (acid) + Zn(NH₂)₂ (amphiphilic amide) → [Zn(NH₃)₄)]I₂ Nitric acid can be a base in liquid sulfuric acid:

HNO₃ (base) + 2H₂SO₄ → NO₂⁺ + H₃O⁺ + 2HSO₄^-

And things become even stranger in the aprotic world, for example in liquid
AgNO₃ (base) + NOCl (acid) → N₂O₄ + AgCl
Since solvent-system definition depends on the solvent as well as on the

compound itself, the same compound can change its role depending on the choice of the solvent. Thus, HClO₄ is a strong acid in water, a weak acid in acetic acid, and a weak base in fluorosulfonic acid.

Other acid-base theories
Usanovich definition
The most general definition is that of the Russian chemist Mikhail Usanovich, and can basically be summarized as defining an acid as anything that accepts negative species or donates positive ones, and a base as the reverse. This tends to overlap the concept of redox (oxidation-reduction), and so is not highly favored by chemists. This is because redox reactions focus more on physical electron transfer processes, rather than bond making/bond breaking processes, although the distinction between these two processes is somewhat ambiguous.
Lux-Flood definition

This definition, proposed by German chemist Hermann Lux in 1939, further improved by Håkon Flood circa 1947 and now commonly used in modern geochemistry and electrochemistry of molten salts, describes an acid as an oxide ion acceptor and a base as an oxide ion donor. For example:

MgO (base) + CO₂ (acid) → MgCO₃

CaO (base) + SiO₂ (acid) → CaSiO₃

NO₃^- (base) + S₂O₇^2- (acid) → NO₂⁺ + 2SO₄^2-

Pearson definition
Main article: HSAB concept
In 1963 Ralph Pearson proposed an advanced qualitative concept known as Hard Soft Acid Base principle, later made quantitative with help of Robert Parr in 1984. 'Hard' applies to species which are small, have high charge states, and are weakly polarizable. 'Soft' applies to species which are large, have low charge states and are strongly polarizable. Acids and bases interact and the most stable interactions are hard-hard and soft-soft. This theory has found use in both organic and inorganic chemistry.
Earth Chemistry

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The Earth and its Lithospher
The earth has been in a state of continual change since its formation. The major part of this change, involving volcanism and tectonics, has been driven by heat produced from the decay of radioactive elements within the earth. The other source of change has been solar energy, which acts as the driving force of weathering and is the ultimate source of energy for living organisms.

The solar system was probably formed about 4.6 billion years ago, and the oldest known rocks have an age of 3.8 billion years. There is thus a gap of 0.8 billion years for which there is no direct evidence. It is known that the earth was subjected to extensive bombardment earlier in its history; recent computer simulations suggest that the moon could have resulted from an especially massive collision with another body. Although these major collisions have diminished in magnitude as the matter in the solar system has become more consolidated, they continue to occur, with the most recent one being responsible for the annihilation of the dinosaurs and much of the other life on Earth. The lack of many overt signs of these collisions (such as craters, for example) testifies to the dynamic processes at work on the Earth’s surface and beneath it.

Chemical composition of the Earth
The earth is composed of 90 chemical elements, of which 81 have at least one

stable isotope. The unstable elements are ⁴³Tc and ⁶¹Pm, and all elements heavier than ⁸³Bi.

Note that the vertical axis is logarithmic, which has the effect of greatly reducing

the visual impression of the differences between the various elements.

The chart gives the abundances of the elements present in the solar system, in the earth as a whole, and in the various geospheres. Of particular interest are the differences between the terrestrial and cosmic abundances, which are especially notable in the cases of the lighter elements (H, C, N) and the noble gas elements (He, Ne, Ar, Xe, Kr).

Given the mix of elements that are present in the earth, how might they combine so as to produce the chemical composition we now observe?

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Thermodynamics allows us to predict the composition that any isolated system will eventually reach at a given temperature and pressure. Of course the earth is not an isolated system, although most parts of it can be considered approximately so in many respects, on time scales sufficient to make thermodynamic predictions reasonably meaningful. The equilibrium states predicted by thermodynamics differ markedly from the observed compositions. The atmosphere, for example, contains 0.03% CO₂ , 78% N₂ and 21% O₂ ; in a world at equilibrium the air would be 99%
^CO²^. Similarly, the oceans, containing about 3.5% NaCl, would have a salt content of 35% if they were in equilibrium with the atmosphere and the lithosphere. Trying to understand the mechanisms that maintain these non-equilibrium states is an important part of contemporary environmental geochemistry.

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