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Changes in precipitation amounts and patterns
Species migration and biodiversity loss
Observable Climate Change Impacts

Human behavior refers to the array of every physical action and observable emotion associated with individuals, as well as the human race as a whole. While specific traits of one's personality and temperament may be more consistent, other behaviors will change as one moves from birth through adulthood. In addition to being dictated by age andgenetics, behavior, driven in part by thoughts and feelings, is an insight into individual psyche, revealing among other things attitudes and values. Social behavior, a subset of human behavior, study the considerable influence of social interaction and culture. Additional influences include ethics, encircling, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion andcoercion.
The behavior of humans (and other organisms or even mechanisms) falls within a range with some behavior being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some outside acceptable limits. In sociology, behavior in general includes actions having no meaning, being not directed at other people, and thus all basic human actions. Behavior in this general sense should not be mistaken with social behavior, which is a more advanced social action, specifically directed at other people. The acceptability of behavior depends heavily upon social norms and is regulated by various means of social control. Human behavior is studied by the specialized

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academi disciplines of psychiatry, psychology, social work, sociology, economics, and anthropology.
Human behavior is experienced throughout an individual’s entire lifetime. It includes the way they act based on different factors such as genetics, social norms, core faith, and attitude. Behavior is impacted by certain traits each individual has. The traits vary from person to person and can produce different actions or behavior from each person. Social norms also impact behavior. Due to the inherently conformist nature of human society in general, humans are pressured into following certain rules and displaying certain behaviors in society, which conditions the way people behave. Different behaviors are deemed to be either acceptable or unacceptable in different societies and cultures. Core faith can be perceived through the religion and philosophy of that individual. It shapes the way a person thinks and this in turn results in different human behaviors. Attitude can be defined as "the degree to which the person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behavior in question."^[1] One's attitude is essentially a reflection of the behavior he or she will portray in specific situations. Thus, human behavior is greatly influenced by the attitudes we use on a daily basis.
Global Warming
Light from the Sun passes through the atmosphere and warms Earth's surface. The energy associated with heating is re-radiated as infrared light absorbed in the atmosphere by greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor, methane (CH4), ozone, nitrous oxide (N2O), and the human-madechlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). This atmospheric warming is called the greenhouse effect and is both natural and essential for life on Earth. Without the greenhouse effect, Earth's average global temperature would be too cold to support most forms of animal and plant life. However, an overabundance of greenhouse gases can increase the greenhouse effect and force abnormal global warming.
Carbon dioxide--a by-product of burning fossil fuels and modern forests--is the most abundant greenhouse gas. Depending on the specific measurements, in the early twenty-first century, there is at least 30 to 40 percent more CO₂ in the atmosphere than in 1850. There have also been significant increases in methane, a more potent greenhouse gas.
In some ways, adding greenhouse gases to the atmosphere is like throwing another blanket on Earth; the consequent rise in global temperature is known as global warming. Despite the fact that climate is a complex system and climate models are difficult to construct, scientists must use climate models to predict the impacts of various concentrations of greenhouse gases on global warming, and in turn, on global climate. Some models show average global temperature increasing as much as 9 degrees Fahrenheit (5 degrees Celsius) by 2100. Because ocean water absorbs more heat than land, the Southern Hemisphere (which has more water) will warm less than the Northern Hemisphere, hence, any temperature increase will not be uniform. Atmospheric circulationpatterns will bring the greatest warming, as much as 14 to 18 degrees Fahrenheit (8 to 10 degrees Celsius), to Earth's poles.

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Since the IPCC's 2007 report, new scientific findings have tended to worsen the climate change picture. In early 2009, scientists at two major gatherings--one at the University of Copenhagen, the other at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science--presented evidence that climate change was occurring more quickly than the IPCC had conservatively forecasted in 2007. In addition, carbon dioxideemissions increased faster than the IPCC's most pessimistic forecasts.
Climate change skeptics often cite Berkley professor of physics Richard A. Muller's (1944-) past criticisms of the scientific consensus on anthropogenic climate change. In 2010, Muller founded the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature Study to analyze climate data. In 2012, Muller recanted his skepticism over anthropogenic climate change, titling his op-ed in the New York Times "The Conversion of a Climate-Change Skeptic." Muller states that his work at Berkeley Earth provides the most convincing evidence to date that human activity over the last 250 years has altered Earth's climate. Muller notes that his findings go even further than the 2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Assessment Report, which only attributed temperature rises since the mid-twentieth century as "very likely" due to human activity.
Climate History
In addition to concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, other factors affecting global climate include Earth's orbital behavior, the positions and topography of the continents, the temperature structure of the oceans, and the amount and types of life on Earth. During much of Earth's history, the climate was warm and humid with ice-free poles. Global average temperatures were about 9 degrees Fahrenheit (5 degrees Celsius) higher than today. Glaciers covered the higher latitudes several times in the past, most recently during the Pleistocene Era (about 1.8 million to 10,000 years ago), when up to 30 percent of the land was covered by ice. During the four glacial advances of the Pleistocene Era, average global temperature was 18 degrees Fahrenheit (10 degrees Celsius) lower than the ancient global average. During the three interglacial periods, global temperature was a degree or two warmer than today.
Climate Change
According to the IPPC and the vast majority of global leaders and climate experts, climate change driven by AGW will fundamentally impact the security, health, and global economy of nations for generations. Hundreds of millions of people and scores of societies, economies, and cultures are already threatened by rising sea levels, disrupted food production, extreme weather, and emergent diseases. While such irreversible losses as speciesextinctions and lost lives cannot be calculated in monetary terms, the most conservative estimates of the costs of climate change over the next century range in the trillions of dollars. Moreover, the most severe effects of climate change are predicted to most strongly impact the world's

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poorest and most vulnerable human populations.
Abnormal warming

Since the peak of the last glacial advance 18,000 years ago, average global temperature has risen approximately 7 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius), including 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit (1 degree Celsius) since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. The recent increases in temperature since the Industrial Revolution, however, are unprecedented and not accounted for by natural cycles. In fact, recent global warming has taken place during a cycle in which many other factors favor global cooling. Although regions vary, according to the IPCC, between 1905 and 2005, the overall average global surface temperature on Earth increased by approximately 1.33 degrees Fahrenheit (0.74 degrees Celsius).

Predicted Impacts of Global Warming
In addition to ecological impacts, a rapid increase in global average temperature will have profound effects on economic infrastructure as well as cultural and political systems.
Warmer average temperatures

According to most climate change models, not all regions will experience warmer temperatures. In fact, due to increasing humidity and cloud cover, some regions might experience (at least initially) cooler temperatures and increased snowfall. There also might be intervals during which temperature increases stop and perhaps modestly decline (especially after significant increases or sharp spikes in temperature, such as recorded in 1998). However, average global atmospheric, land, and sea temperatures are expected to rise over the next century.

Warmer temperatures would allow tropical and subtropical insects to expand their ranges, bringing tropical diseases such as malaria, encephalitis, yellow fever, and dengue fever to more human populations. There would be an increase in heat-related diseases and deaths. Agricultural regions might become too dry to support crops, and food production all over the world would be forced to move northward. This would result in a loss of current cropland of 10 to 50 percent and a decline in the global yield of key food crops of 10 to 70 percent.
Most computer models of global climate predict that high latitudes will experience the greatest intensity of climatic warming. Ecologists have suggested that the warming of northern ecosystems could induce a positive feedback to climate change. For example, the huge expanse of boreal forest and arctic tundra normally forms sinks, or reservoirs, that store atmospheric CO₂. If the climate continues to warm, these typically frozen carbon sinks would begin to thaw. Eventually, the depth of annual thawing of frozen soils would expose large quantities of carbon-rich organic materials in the permafrost to microbial decomposition, thereby releasing vast quantities of methane into the atmosphere.
Sea level rise
Sea levels have risen and fallen due to natural causes many times over Earth's history. However, during what should be a cooling period, warmer ocean

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temperatures are already causing ocean water to expand and polarice caps to melt. Forecasts as to the amount and timing of sea level rises are scientifically contentious, but all forecasts predict potentially devastating increases over the next decades and centuries. In 2007, the IPCC predicted a rise between 18 and 59 centimeters (7 and 23 inches) by 2100. However, a number of scientists have argued in leading scientific journals that the future sea level rise may be greater than the IPCC's 2007 forecast and is unlikely to be less.
In 2009, new data on glacial melting and sea level rise forced scientists to dramatically increase estimates of potential sea level rise and/or accelerate the rate of rise. The new data predict a sea level rise of at least 1 meter (a little more than 3 feet) by 2100. Such an increase in sea level will flood coastal regions, where about one-third of the world's population lives and where an enormous amount of economic infrastructure is concentrated. It would destroy coral reefs, accelerate coastal erosion, and increase the salinity of coastal groundwater aquifers. Some low-lying tropical Pacific islands are already losing land to rising seas, and on some, residents are planning to leave as the sea engulfs their island homes.
Changes in precipitation amounts and patterns
As globally averaged temperatures rise, scientists predict moderate to severe alterations in precipitation regimes in various parts of the world. According to some climate models, at the current rate of warming, precipitation patterns will change so that one-third of the planet will be considered desert by 2100. The percentage of the globe that is now prone to moderate drought will increase from 25 percent to nearly 50 percent by century's end. The 8 percent of the land now prone to severe drought will increase to 40 percent of the land.
In any region where the climate becomes drier, forested areas also are likely to shrink, with possible expansion of savanna, prairie, or even desert. A landscape change of this magnitude is believed to have occurred in the New World tropics during the Pleistocene glaciations. Due to the relatively dry climate at that time, what are today continuous rainforests may have been constricted into relatively small, isolated patches (refugia). These forest remnants may have existed within a landscape matrix of savanna and grassland. Such an enormous restructuring of the character of the tropical landscape must have had a tremendous effect on the multitude of rare species that live in rainforests. Further, as forests shrink, precipitation decreases. Trees transpire enormous quantities of water vapor into the air; without the forests, entire regions experience dramatic declines in rainfall.
Climate change will also likely cause important changes in the ability of the land to support crops. This would be particularly true of lands cultivated in regions that are marginal in terms of rainfall and are vulnerable to drought and desertification. For example, important crops such as wheat are grown in regions of the western interior of North America that formerly supported natural shortgrass prairie. It has been estimated that about 40 percent of this semiarid region, measuring 400 million hectares (988 million acres), has already been desertified by agricultural activities and overgrazing, and crop-limiting droughts occur there sporadically. This

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climatic handicap can be partially managed by irrigation. However, there is a shortage of water for irrigation, and this practice can cause its own environmental problems, such as salinization of the soil. Clearly, substantial changes in climate would place the present agricultural systems at great risk in many areas.
Patterns of wildfire would also be influenced by changes in precipitation regimes. Based on climate model predictions, it has been suggested that there could be a 50 percent increase in the area of forest annually burned in Canada, presently about 1-2 million hectares (2.5-4.9 million acres) in typical years.
Shallow marine ecosystems also are affected by increases in sea surface temperature. Corals are vulnerable to even very small rises in water temperature, which deprives them of their symbiotic algae (called zooxanthellae). Depending on the degree of warming, corals may be bleached or, if the warm-water regime is long lasting, the corals may die. Widespread coral bleaching is increasingly observed as oceans warm. Coral reefs are crucial in the life cycle of numerous fish species, including fish many people use for food. The demise of coral reefs as sea surface temperatures warm could devastate fisheries worldwide. A potentially more severe problem for corals arises directly from increased atmospheric CO₂, which increases the acidity of the oceans as it dissolves. Increased acidity diminishes the ability of corals and many other sea creatures with shells to make their hard parts of calcium carbonate.
Extreme weather
Storms result from a complex number of factors, and it remains impossible to attribute any single storm to climate change. However, the long-range prediction of a number of climate models is for an increased frequency and severity of storms as global temperatures rise. In August 2007, scientists at the World Meteorological Organization, an agency of the United Nations, announced that during recent periods, several regions of Earth showed significant increases above long term global averages in both high temperatures and frequency of extreme weather events including heavy rainfalls, cyclones, and wind storms.
A decrease in the temperature difference between the poles and the equator would alter global wind patterns and storm tracks. Regions with marginal rainfall levels could experience drought, making them uninhabitable. Overall, since warmer air holds more moisture, an increase in global air and sea temperatures is expected to increase the number of storms. Many climate models predict that higher sea surface temperatures would increase the frequency and duration of hurricanes and El Niño events.
Species migration and biodiversity loss
Studies of changes in vegetation during the warming climate that followed the most recent Pleistocene glaciationsuggest that plant species responded in unique, individualistic ways. These differences result from the varying tolerances of species to changes in climate and other aspects of the environment, and their different

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abilities to colonize newly available habitats.
Some models predict that wild plant and animal species would need to move poleward 100 to 150 kilometers (60 to 90 miles) or up in altitude 150 meters (500 feet) for each 1 degree Celsius rise in global temperature. As most species could not migrate that rapidly, and as development would stop them from colonizing many new areas, much biodiversity would be lost.
Modern drastic climate alterations could have more devastating effects on ecosystems, and the plant communities at their base, because of the rapidity with which these changes are occurring. The temperature and precipitation changes will likely have an enormous impact on vegetation, as soil moisture drops in many parts of the world. It is reasonable to predict that any large changes in patterns of precipitation would result in fundamental reorganizations of vegetation in the terrestrial landscape. However, unlike previous naturally induced changes in climate, which usually occur over millennia, current climate changes may occur in a matter of decades. Such abrupt changes leave plants, and the animals that depend on them, too little time to adapt to the new conditions or to adapt enough to be able to survive in other biomes.
Human populations also are predicted to shift due to climate change. Some estimates suggest that the number of environmental refugees could rise to 150 million by 2050.
Observable Climate Change Impacts
Studies conducted annually since 2000 have shown yearly decreases in both the thickness and cover of Arctic sea ice. A study released in 2006 revealed that perennial sea ice in the Arctic, normally 3 meters (10 feet) thick or greater, has thinned to 0.3-2 meters (1-7 feet) thick. This thinner ice is far more vulnerable to melting. Perennial ice cover also is declining rapidly, with a sharp 14 percent loss between 2004 and 2005. This decrease represents an overall loss of 730,000 square kilometers (280,000 square miles). Other studies conducted in 2006 considered the extent of summer, or non-perennial, sea ice cover in the Arctic, which has been monitored by satellite since 1979. The data show that sea ice extent reached record lows in 2007 and 2012. The summer extent of sea ice was 39 percent lower in 2007 than the 1978-2001 average. The Northwest Passage, which is the sea route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean along the northern edge of North America, was ice-free for the first time in recorded history. Some scientists predict that large, navigable swaths of the Arctic Sea will be ice-free in summer by 2030.
One of the most dramatic signs of global warming is the rapid melting of most of the world's mountain glaciers. In early 2008, scientists with the United Nations Environment Programme announced that mountain glaciers were melting faster than ever as a result of global climate change. The rate of melting more than doubled from 2004-2005 to 2005-2006 at thirty closely monitored reference glaciers around the world. The melting rate for 2005-2006 was four times greater than that for 1980-1999. Globally, not all glaciers thinned during 2005-2006, but the overall trend was strongly toward accelerated melting.

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The year 2012 was the ninth warmest on record globally and the hottest year on record in the United States. Despite the fact that part of the decade was spent at a solar minimum, nine of the last thirteen years since 2000 have ranked in the top ten for hottest average temperatures. In addition to 1998, every year after 2001 appears at top of the warmest year record list.
In May 2013, carbon dioxide monitoring stations at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii recorded CO₂ levels of 400 parts per million (ppm) for the first time. Although CO₂ monitors recorded CO₂ levels of 400 ppm in the Arctic in 2012, the May 2013 results at Mauna Loa marked the first recording of CO₂ of 400 ppm or higher in a temperate zone.
Scope
Green Chemistry provides a unique forum for the publication of innovative research on the development of alternative sustainable technologies.
The scope of Green Chemistry is based on, but not limited to, the definition proposed by Anastas and Warner (Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice, P T Anastas and J C Warner, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998). Green chemistry is the utilisation of a set of principles that reduces or eliminates the use or generation of hazardous substances in the design, manufacture and application of chemical products.

Green Chemistry is at the frontiers of this interdisciplinary science and publishes research that attempts to reduce the environmental impact of the chemical enterprise by developing a technology base that is inherently non-toxic to living things and the environment. Submissions on all aspects of research relating to the endeavor are welcome.
The journal publishes original and significant cutting-edge research that is likely to be of wide general appeal. Coverageincludes the following, butis not limited to:

the application of innovative technology to establish industrial procedures
the development of environmentally improved routes, synthetic methods and processes to important products

the design of new, greener and safer chemicals and materials

the use of sustainable resources
the use of biotechnology alternatives to chemistry-based solutions
methodologies and tools for measuring environmental impact and application to real world examples

chemical aspects of renewable energy

reading

Substance structure

Substance
Substance [sub'-stuns] is the material, or matter, of which something is made.

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Substances are physical things that can be seen, touched, or measured. They are made up of one or more elemental parts. Iron, aluminium, water and air are examples of substances.

Steam and liquid water are two different forms of the same chemical substance,

water.

The Latin word substantia - a translation of the Greek word for the essence (ousia), and in Latin to describe the essence of using the word essentia.

Did you know when you are breathing you are actually inhaling elements? The air you breathe is made up of many elements like oxygen, nitrogen, and argon. Elements are everywhere. They are the building blocks of everything on Earth: your dog, the mountains, your car, your eyes, and, yes, even beer. In this lesson, we will discuss what an element is, how elements are written as symbols, and how they are the building blocks of all matter.

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